Friday, September 5, 2008

Zhu Yousong, Prince of Fu

Zhu Yousong, Prince of Fu, was the first pretender to the throne after the fall of the Ming Dynasty.

Zhu Yujian, Prince of Tang

''This article is based on a translation from the Chinese Wikipedia.''

The Prince of Tang reigned as the Longwu emperor of the Southern Ming dynasty from 1646-1646. His personal name was Zhu Yujian . He was a descendant of the first emperor . Before ascending to the throne he followed his father as the Prince of Tang, their fief being situated in Nanyang prefecture, in Henan province. In 1636 he was stripped of his title by the Chongzhen Emperor and put under house arrest in Fengyang. His former title was transferred to his younger brother Zhu Yumo . In 1641 the latter committed suicide when Li Zicheng invaded Nanyang. After the death of the Chongzhen Emperor 1644, his successor on the Ming throne, the released the Prince of Tang from his arrest.

When forces captured Nanjing in June 1645 he fled to Hangzhou. In August of the same year at the behest of several high officials he ascended to the Ming throne in Fuzhou, taking the Longwu . After a promising start, Fujian's geographical position on the margin of the empire, cut off the heartland through several mountain ranges, as well as his lack of effective troops and the failure on part of the officialdom to find a united stance doomed the Longwu government. When Qing forces invaded Fujian in the late summer of 1646, Zheng Zhilong, the emperors strongest ally, surrendered while his son Zheng Chenggong retreated to sea.

The Prince of Tang, left with a dwindling court. On October 6, 1646, he was captured and immediately executed.

Against the Ming policy of keeping imperial princes out of politics, the Prince of Tang early on showed interest in the government of the empire and strove for a larger role of the princes in it. While this brought him under house arrest during the reign of the Chongzhen Emperor, it also made him probably the most skilled and best suited emperor of the Southern Ming dynasty.

Contrary to Chinese custom, the Prince of Tang steadfastly declined to take any concubines. He is also said to have had a very close relationship with his wife.

Prince of Tang (Shaowu)

''This article is based on a translation from the Chinese Wikipedia.''

The Prince of Tang reigned as the Shaowu Emperor of the Southern Ming dynasty from 1646-1647. His personal name was Zhu Yuyuè . He was a descendant of the first emperor . Before ascending to the throne he followed his father as the Prince of Tang and elder brother, the future Longwu Emperor, their fief being situated in Nanyang prefecture, in Henan province. In 1646 he succeeded the title of Prince of Tang after the accession of the Longwu Emperor.

When forces captured Fuzhou in 1646 and killed the Longwu Emperor, he fled to Guangzhou. In December of the same year at the behest of several high officials he ascended to the throne in Guangzhou, taking the Shaowu , just a few days before the Prince of Gui became the Yongli Emperor. Both regimes claimed to be the legitimate successor of the Ming Dynasty, and war broke out shortly afterwards. Initially, forces of the Shaowu regime enjoyed victory over the Yongli forces. This ultimately led to the over confidence of the Shaowu Emperor. Corruption and lack of defence doomed the government. Just 40 days after the establishment of the Shaowu regime, Qing forces successfully invaded Guangzhou. The Shaowu Emperor was captured in January 1647 and immediately committed suicide.

The remains of the Shaowu Emperor and his officials are buried in Yuexiu Park, Guangzhou.

Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui

The Prince of Gui or the Yongli Emperor, was an emperor of the Southern Ming Dynasty in China. He was the last surviving Southern emperor who lived long enough to see the collapse of the last vestiges of the Ming dynasty in mainland China. Born Zhu Youlang sometime in 1623, to Zhu Changying , the seventh son of the Wanli emperor. The Yongli emperor, who is commonly known as The Prince of Gui, actually inherited this title from his brother.

At the age of 21 on 18 November 1646, the young Prince ascended the throne and assumed the reign name of Yongli. He initially established himself in Guangzhou, the capital of Guangdong, but as the Ming troops were unable fend off the stronger Qing troops who were continuously sending reinforcements south towards Guangzhou, the Yongli emperor had no choice but to flee in 1650 from Guangzhou towards Nanning in order to save his life. However, as Wu Sangui's troops exerted a further pressure against his at that time current location, the Prince of Gui eventually retreated to Kunming in Yunnan in 1659 and into Burma in 1661, where he was granted refuge by the Burmese King and lived at Sagaing.

The Burmese king, however, was feeling frightened that he would lose his own kingdom as well if he continued to offer the Prince of Gui further protection. Having no choice, the King let in Wu Sangui's troops and let them arrest the Prince of Gui. In the process, most of his concubines and eunuchs, along with his small army, were either killed while defending him or ran away. The Prince of Gui was finally strangled to death by Wu Sangui in April 1662. It is said that he scorned Wu Sangui in his last moments, stating that he betrayed his people and country. He prompted Wu to kill him faster by stating that he is disgusted to see a "Traitor's face." Wu Sangui was embarrassed and enraged and thus executed him personally with his bow string.

Li Zicheng

Li Zicheng , born Lĭ Hóngjī , was one of the major figures in the rebellion that brought down the . He proclaimed himself Chuǎng Wáng , or "The Roaming King".

Biography


Born in Mizhi District , Yan'an Subprefecture , Li grew up as a shepherd. Li started to learn horseriding and archery at age 20, and also worked in a wine shop and under an ironworker as an apprentice.

According to folklore, in 1630 he was put on public display in an iron collar and shackles for his failure to repay loans to an usurious magistrate, . Ai struck a guard who offered shade and water to Li, whence a group of peasants tore apart Li's shackles, spirited him to a nearby hill, and proclaimed him their leader. Despite having only wooden sticks, Li and his band ambushed police sent against them and obtained their first real weapons. A terrible famine had beset Shaanxi in this time, and in three years, Li gathered more than 20,000 soldiers. The rebels then attacked and killed leading officials in places in Henan, Shanxi, and Shaanxi.

In April 1644, Li's rebels sacked the Ming capital of Beijing, and the committed suicide. He proclaimed himself as the Emperor of Shun Dynasty , that made people called him ''Shunwang'' . After his army was defeated on May 27, 1644 by the Manchus and Wu Sangui , Li Zicheng fled Beijing towards his power base in Shaanxi; after a number of defeats, he ultimately died either by committing suicide off of a Lotus tree or was killed by pro- militia during his escape at the age of 40. Some folk tales hold that Li didn't die upon defeat, but instead became a monk.

Li Zicheng historiography


Although the conquest of China was made possible by the Ming Dynasty being weakened by the Li Zicheng rebellion, ironically, official historiography during the Qing Dynasty regarded Li as an illegitimate usurper and bandit. This view sought to discourage and demonize notions of rebellion against the Qing government; the imperial government propagated the view that the Qing Dynasty put an end to the illegitimate rule of Li and restored honor to the empire, thus receiving the Mandate of Heaven to rule China. In 20th century Maoist China, the anti- and radical inclinations of the Communist Party of China viewed Li Zicheng favorably, portraying him as an early revolutionary against feudalism. To this end, the government of the People's Republic of China honored Li with a large monument in Beijing.

Zhengtong Emperor

Zhu Qizhen was an of the Ming Dynasty. He ruled as the Zhengtong Emperor from 1435 to 1449, and as the Tianshun Emperor from 1457 to 1464.

First Reign


Zhu Qizhen was the son of the Xuande Emperor Zhu Zhanji and his Empress Sun. At the beginning of Zhengtong's reign, the Ming dynasty was prosperous and at the height of its power as a result of Xuande Emperor's able administration. Zhengtong's accession at the age of eight makes him the first child emperor of the dynasty hence Zhengtong was easily influenced by others, namely his eunuch Wang Zhen. Zhengtong thoroughly relied on Zhen for advice and guidance.

Imprisonment by the Mongols


At the age of 22, in 1449, he was imprisoned by the Mongols when, advised by Wang Zhen, he personally directed and lost the against the Mongols under . His capture by the enemy force shook the Ming dynasty to its core and the ensuing crisis almost caused the dynasty to collapse were it not for the capable governing of a prominent minister named Yu Qian. Although Zhengtong was a prisoner of the Mongols, he became a good friend to the . Meanwhile, to calm the crisis at home, his brother Zhu Qiyu was installed as the Jingtai Emperor. This reduced Zhengtong's imperial status and he was granted the title of "grand emperor".

House arrest and second reign


The Zhengtong Emperor was released one year later in 1450 but when he returned to China, he was immediately put under house arrest by his brother for almost seven years. He resided in the southern palace of the Forbidden city and all outside contacts were severely curtailed by the Jingtai Emperor. Zhengtong's son was stripped of the title of crown prince and replaced by Jingtai's own son. This act greatly upset and devastated Zhengtong but the heir apparent died shortly thereafter. Overcome with grief, the Jingtai Emperor fell ill and Zhengtong decided to depose Jingtai by a palace coup which eventually reinstalled Zhu Qizhen as emperor, who renamed his second reign Tianshun and went on to rule for another seven years.

On August 6, 1461, the Tianshun Emperor issued an edict warning his subjects to be loyal to the throne and not to violate the laws. This was a veiled threat aimed at the general , who had become embroiled in a controversy when he had one of his retainers kill a man whom Ming authorities were attempting to interrogate . However, during the first hours of the morning of August 7, prominent Ming Mongol generals, Wu Jin and Wu Cong, were alerted of the coup and immediately relayed a warning to the emperor. Although alarmed, the emperor and his court made preparations for a conflict and barred the gates of the palace. During the ensuing onslaught in the capital later that morning, the Minister of Works and the Commander of the Imperial Guard were killed, while the rebels set the gates of the Forbidden City on fire. The fight lasted for nearly the entire day within the city; during which three of Cao Qin's brothers were killed, and Qin himself received wounds to both arms. With the failure of the coup, in order to escape being executed, Qin fled to his residence and committed suicide by jumping down a well within the walled compound of his home.

The Tianshun Emperor died at the age of 37 in 1464 and was buried in the Yuling tomb of the Ming Dynasty Tombs.

Note


''Tianshun was also the name of a Yuan Dynasty reign.''

Chongzhen Emperor

The Chongzhen Emperor was the 16th and last of the Ming dynasty in China between 1627 and 1644. Born Zhu Youjian, he was emperor 's son.

Early reign


Chongzhen grew up in a relatively quiet environment because as the younger son of the Taichang emperor, he was not a part of the power struggle his elder brother Tianqi had endured. He succeeded his brother to the throne at the age of 17 and eliminated the eunuch Wei Zhongxian and Madam Ke. Unlike his brother Tianqi, Chongzhen tried to rule by himself and did his best to salvage the dynasty. However, years of internal corruption and an empty treasury made it almost impossible to appoint capable ministers to fill important government posts. And when he did have able ministers, Chongzhen tended to be suspicious of them and imposed harsh penalties if he suspected them of disloyalty. In 1630, merely three years after pledging his full support, Chongzhen even executed Yuan Chonghuan, a capable marshal who had been very successful at keeping the Manchus in the northeastern frontier at bay. This injustice caused a public uproar and created an atmosphere of distrust and fear of reprisal amongst his ministers. It also sealed the fate of the Ming dynasty, as there were no other capable generals to fend off the Manchus.

Fall of the Ming Dynasty


In the 1630s and '40s the Ming dynasty was fading quickly. Constant popular uprisings broke out throughout the country. Intensified attacks from the Manchus further aggravated the situation. In April 1644, the popular army led by rebel Li Zicheng finally broke through the Ming defenses and occupied Beijing. Meanwhile, General Wu Sangui threw open the gates of the Shanhai Pass and invited the Manchus into China. Chongzhen gathered the entire imperial household and ordered them to commit suicide rather than surrender. Hopeless and fearful for their lives, many did as they were told, including the Empress, who hanged herself. One of his daughters, , refused to commit suicide. In a fit of rage, Chongzhen had her left arm severed. Chongzhen, still wearing his imperial attire, fled to the nearby Jingshan Park with eunuch Wang Cheng'en . Distraught by the countless officials who had since abandoned him, Chongzhen lamented, "I should not be the emperor of a subjugated nation, but you, my subjects, must be resigned to such a fate. I have never mistreated any of the officials in my service; yet on this day, why does nary a single one remain by my side?" He then hanged himself, with the help of Wang Cheng'en, on the Guilty Chinese Scholartree, putting an end to the Ming dynasty.

Legacy and personality


Chongzhen's tenure as emperor effectively ended the Ming dynasty. Although his intention to revive the failing dynasty was genuine, his means to achieve them proved disastrous. He has been blamed for being narrow-minded, quick to judgement, and prone to suspicion and paranoia. Though the Ming dynasty had been in decline for many decades prior to his reign, Chongzhen would expect quick results. If they were not to his satisfaction, he would quickly administer punitive actions. This resulted in the expulsion of the remaining handful of capable and loyal Ming ministers which ultimately hastened the downfall of the Ming dynasty.

Jingtai Emperor

Zhu Qiyu
was Emperor of China of the Ming Dynasty from 1449 to 1457 as the Jingtai Emperor.

Biography


He ascended the throne in 1449 after his older brother tried but failed to lead an army to fight against the Mongols of and was captured and held captive for a year.

His brother was eventually released in 1450 after the Mongols learned that the Ming government had already installed Jingtai as the new emperor.
After that, Jingtai continued to rule on as emperor while his brother was granted a technical title of "grand-emperor" and lived in obscurity.

During Jingtai's reign, aided by a prominent minister Yu Qian, he paid particular attention to matters affecting his country. He repaired the as well as the system of dykes along the Yellow River. As a result of his administration, the economy prospered and the dynasty was further strengthened.

He reigned for 8 years but on the eve of his death in 1457, he refused to name an heir, particularly because his own son died mysteriously -- perhaps poisoned. The discarded Zhengtong saw an opportunity to regain the throne and declared himself the successor. Zhengtong, now emperor again, renamed his era name as Tianshun. Jingtai died a month later. Rumour has it that Jingtai was murdered by eunuchs on the order of the Tianshun emperor.

After Jingtai's death, the Emperor Tianshun denied Jingtai's rightful honour to be buried in the 13 Ming tombs located north of Beijing. He was instead buried away from that locale west of Beijing and was buried as a prince rather than an emperor. His posthumous name was also shortened to five characters instead of the normal seventeen to reflect his demoted status.

Chenghua Emperor

The Chenghua Emperor was of the Ming dynasty in China, between 1464 and 1487.

Childhood


Born Zhu Jianshen, he was the Zhengtong Emperor's son. He was only 2 years old when his father - the Zhengtong emperor was captured by the Mongols and held captive in 1449. After that his uncle, the Jingtai Emperor took over whilst his father was put under house arrest for almost 7 years. During this time, Chenghua lived under his uncle's shadow and even had his title of crown prince removed while Jingtai installed his own son as heir. Chenghua was only reinstated as crown prince on the eve of death of Emperor Jingtai in 1457.

Reign as Emperor


Chenghua ascended the throne at the age of 17. During the early part of his administration, Chenghua carried out new government policies to reduce tax and strengthen the dynasty. However these did not last and by the closing years of his reign, governmental affairs once again fell into the hands of eunuchs, notably Wang Zhi. Peasant uprisings occurred throughout the country; however, they were violently suppressed. Chenghua's reign was also more autocratic than his predecessors' and freedom was sharply curtailed when Chenghua established institutes such as the Xi Chang , monitoring all civilians' actions and words. This institute, not unlike a spy agency, would administer punishment to those whom they suspected of treason. The Xi Chang would eventually be shut down but it was the start of a dangerous trend and Chenghua's descendants would again revive the Xi Chang during the 16th century.

Chenghua was also under the influence of Lady Wan who was a palace lady more than twice his age. Lady Wan had been a mother figure to young Chenghua but after ascending the throne she quickly became Chenghua's favourite consort after giving birth to a child in 1464. The child soon died however Lady Wan held sway over the imperial harem and prevented the young emperor from bearing any offspring. Lady Wan and her eunuchs would either induce abortion to those who were about to bear the emperor's child or administer poison to mother and child if birth had occurred ¹.

It was not until 1475 that Chenghua discovered that he had a son who survived and was raised in secrecy.

Chenghua died in 1487, after 23 years on the throne. He was buried in Maoling 。

Legacy


Emperor Chenghua's reign can be distinguished by his early attempts to reform the government and trying his best to rule the country. His reign also saw a cultural flourishing with famous Ming personnel such as Hu Juren and Chen Baisha dominating the academic scene.
However Chenghua's reign was prone to dominating individuals in the government and Chenghua was easily influenced into granting favours based on who he likes rather than their abilities. This led to the degradation at the ruling class and wasteful spending by corrupt individuals which eventually depleted the empire's coffer.

Source


¹ Imperial China - 900-1800, F.W. Mote, Page 630, First Harvard University Press, 2003.

Hongzhi Emperor

The Hongzhi Emperor was emperor of the Ming dynasty in China between 1487 and 1505. Born Zhu Youtang, he was the son of the Chenghua Emperor and his reign as emperor of China is called the Hongzhi Silver Age. He was a wise and peace-loving ruler. Hongzhi took only one empress and had no concubine. He remains the sole perpetually-monogamous emperor in Chinese history.

Early years


Hongzhi was born in an era where Lady Wan and her associates were on the lookout to eliminate any child born to the emperor Chenghua. It was through a stroke of luck that young Hongzhi was hidden away by the former empress of Chenghua that Hongzhi escaped the fate of death. Hongzhi was only then reunited with his father at the age of 5, in 1475 and was created crown prince. Hongzhi had been a brilliant child early on and he received the best education offered at that time. Hongzhi was immersed in Confucian schooling and he excelled in his studies.

Reign as emperor


After Hongzhi ascended the throne in 1487, his administration was modelled after Confucian ideology and he became a hardworking and diligent emperor. He closely supervised all affairs of state, lowered taxes, reduced government spending and made wise decisions when employing ministers to government post. Individuals such as Liu Jian, Xie Qian and Wang Shu worked hand in hand with Hongzhi thus creating a seldom-witnessed atmosphere of cooperation within the government. In addition, Emperor Hongzhi also encouraged his ministers to be up front about all issues, even acknowledging criticisms directed towards the Emperor himself. This created a more transparent government and introduced fresh energy into the Ming dynasty. As a result the populace once again prospered under his rule. It was said that individual eunuchs' power was curtailed and palace intrigues, prevalent in previous reigns, was absent during his reign. Hongzhi has been compared to his predecessors Emperor Hongwu and Emperor Yongle as one of the most brilliant emperors of the Ming dynasty.

In the spring of 1488, the shipwrecked Korean crew of the Jeju-do official Choe Bu were traveling up the Grand Canal of China while escorted by the Ming courier service en route back to Korea. Choe observed ferry ships passing by holding officials who were from the . When he asked what was going on, it was explained to him that the new Emperor Hongzhi was ridding his government of corrupt and incompetent officials, and this was a final gesture of good will by the emperor by providing them with a comfortable passage back home by ship.

Succession crisis


Unlike almost all of his predecessors who took up many concubines which bore many children to the Emperor, Hongzhi had only one Empress during his lifetime. Coupled with the fact that the Empress Zhang had only 2 sons , Hongzhi was left with only one nominee to succeed him. After Emperor Hongzhi died in 1505 he was succeeded by his son, the Zhengde Emperor. Unfortunately, Zhengde died childless in 1521 and the throne had to be passed to a cousin, effectively ending Hongzhi's own line of succession.

Zhengde Emperor

The Zhengde Emperor was emperor of China between 1505-1521. Born Zhu Houzhao, he was the Hongzhi Emperor's eldest son.

Early years


Zhengde was created crown prince at a very early age and because his father did not take up any other concubines, Zhengde did not have to contend with other princes for the throne. Zhengde was thoroughly educated in Confucian literature and he excelled in his studies. Many of Emperor Hongzhi's ministers expected that Zhengde would become a benevolent and brilliant emperor like his father, but this was not to be.

Reign as Emperor


Zhengde ascended the throne at the age of 14. Unlike his father, Zhengde was not interested in ruling and disregarded all state affairs. His actions have been considered reckless, foolish or pointless. There are many instances where he showed a lack of responsibility.

He took up a luxurious and prodigal lifestyle and indulged himself in women. It was said that he liked to frequent brothels and even created palaces called "Pao Fang" outside the Forbidden City in Beijing initially to house exotic animals such as tigers and leopards for his amusements and then later used to house beautiful women for his personal enjoyment. On one occasion he was badly mauled while hunting tigers, and could not appear in court audiences for a month. There was even rumor of a plot that Liu Jin had intended to murder the emperor and place his own grandnephew on the throne. Liu Jin's plot was ultimately discovered, and he was executed in 1510 however the rise of corrupt enunchs continued throughout Zhengde's reign.

In time Zhengde became notorious for his childish behaviour as well as abusing his power as emperor. One strange and somewhat comical event was when he created a staged commercial district inside his palace and ordered all his ministers, eunuchs, soldiers and servants of the palace to dress up and acted the role that he dictated ex. merchants or street vendors whilst Zhengde would walk through the scene pretending to be a commoner. Any unwilling participants especially the ministers would be punished or removed from their post.

Then in 1518 Zhengde declared himself General Zhu and personally led an expedition to the north claiming his intention to pacify the Mongol tribes but in the end did not accomplish much. Then again in 1519, Zhengde Emperor led another expedition to Jiangxi province to the south in hopes to quell a local prince's revolt only to discover that the revolt has already been put down. Frustrated at not being able to lead his troops to victory, Zhengde ordered the release of the prince just so he could experience the chance to capture his prisoner for himself. In January of 1521, Zhengde had the rebel Prince of Ning executed in Tongzhou, an event that was recorded even by the embassy to China.

Dark Affliction


Prior to the death of the emperor in early 1521, rumours about a mysterious group of creatures collectively called Dark Afflictions circulated the capital. Their attacks caused much unrest, because they randomly attacked people at night, causing wounds with their claws. The Minister for War asked the emperor to write an imperial edict proclaiming local security troops would arrest all those who frightened other people. The threat brought a sudden end to the spread of the stories.

Death of emperor


Emperor Zhengde died in 1521 at the age of 30. One day in the fall of 1520 it was said that Zhengde was drunk while boating on a lake. He fell off his boat and almost drowned himself. He died after contracting illnesses from the waters.

Jiajing Emperor

The Jiajing Emperor was Emperor of China from 1521 to 1567, the 11th emperor of the Ming dynasty. Born Zhu Houcong, he was the Zhengde Emperor's cousin.

Early years


As the nephew of the Hongzhi Emperor, Jiaqing was not brought up to succeed to the throne. However, the throne became vacant in 1521 with the sudden death of the Hongzhi Emperor's son, Emperor Zhengde, who did not leave an heir. The 14 year old Jiajing was chosen to become emperor, and so relocated from his father's fief to Beijing.

Reign as Emperor


Custom dictated that an emperor who was not an immediate descendant of the previous one should be adopted by the previous one, to maintain an unbroken line. Such a posthumous adoption of Zhu Houcong by Emperor Zhengde was proposed, but he resisted, preferring instead to have his father declared emperor posthumously. This conflict is known as "." The Jiajing Emperor prevailed, and several of his opponents were banished or executed. Among the banished was the great Ming poet Yang Shen.

The Jiajing Emperor was known to be a cruel and self-aggrandizing emperor and he also chose to reside outside of the Forbidden city in Beijing so he could live in isolation. Ignoring state affairs, Jiajing employed incapable individuals such as Zhang Cong and , on whom he thoroughly relied to handle affairs of state. In time Yan Song and his son Yan Shifan - who gained power only as a result of his father's political influence - came to dominate the whole government even being called the "First and Second Prime Minister". Loyal individuals such as Hai Rui and Yang Xusheng challenged and even chastised Yan Song and his son but were thoroughly ignored by the emperor. Hai Rui and many loyal ministers were eventually dismissed or executed. Jiajing also abandoned the practice of seeing his ministers altogether from 1539 onwards and for a period of almost 25 years refused to give official audiences, choosing instead to relay his wishes through eunuchs and officials. Only Yan Song, a few handful of eunuchs and Daoist priests ever saw Jiajing. This eventually led to corruption at all levels of the Ming government.

Jiajing's ruthlessness also led to an internal plot by his concubines to assassinate him in October, 1542 by strangling him while he slept. A group of palace girls who had had enough of Jiajing's cruelty decided to band together to murder the emperor. The lead palace girl tried to strangle the emperor with ribbons from her hair while the others held down the emperor's arms and legs but made a fatal mistake by tying a knot around the emperor's neck which would not tighten. Meanwhile some of the young girls involved began to panic and one ran to the empress. The plot was exposed. All of the girls involved, including the emperor's favourite concubine, were summarily executed on the orders of the empress.

The Ming dynasty had enjoyed a long period of peace, but in 1542 the Mongol leader Altan Khan began to harass China along the northern border. In 1550 he even reached the suburbs of Beijing. Eventually the empire appeased him by granting special trading rights. The empire also had to deal with attacking the southeastern coastline; general Qi Jiguang was instrumental in defeating these pirates.

Starting in 1550, Beijing was enlarged by adding the .

The deadliest earthquake of all times, the of 1556 that killed over 800,000 people, occurred during the Jiajing Emperor's reign.

Taoist pursuits



He was a devoted follower of Taoism and attempted to suppress Buddhism. After the assassination attempt in 1542, Jiajing began to pay excessive attention to his Taoist pursuits while ignoring his imperial duties. He built the three Taoist temples Temple of Sun, Temple of Earth and Temple of Moon and extended the Temple of Heaven by adding the ''Earthly Mount''. Over the years, Jiaqing's devotion to Taoism was to become a heavy financial burden for the empire and create dissent across the country.

Particularly during his later years, Jiajing was known for spending a great deal of time on alchemy in hopes of finding medicines to prolong his life. He would forcibly recruit young girls in their early teens and engaged in sexual activities in hopes of empowering himself, along with the consumption of potent . He employed Taoist priests to collect rare minerals from all over the country to create elixirs, including elixirs containing mercury, which inevitably posed health problems at high doses.

Legacy and death


After 45 years on the throne , Emperor Jiajing died in 1567 -– possibly due to mercury overdose – and was succeeded by his son, the Longqing Emperor. Though his long rule gave the dynasty an era of stability, Jiajing's neglect of his official duties resulted in the decline of the dynasty at the end of the 16th century. His style of governing or for that matter the lack thereof would be emulated by his later in the century.

Longqing Emperor

Longqing Emperor was the 12th emperor of China between 1567-1572. Born Zhu Zaihou, he was the Jiajing Emperor's son. He was created Prince Yu in 1539.

Biography


After the death of the Jiajing Emperor, Longqing inherited a country in disarray after years of mismanagement and corruption. Realizing the depth of chaos his father's long reign had caused, Longqing set about reforming the government by re-employing talented officials that were originally banished by his father and also ridding the government of corrupt officials namely Daoist priests whom the Jiajing Emperor had favoured in the hope of mending the situation. Furthermore, he reinstigated trade with other empires in Europe, Africa and other parts of Asia and also reinforced border security, nominating several generals to patrol the borders by land and on sea. This included the fortification of seaports along the Zhejiang and Fujian coast to deter pirates, a constant nuisance during the Jiajing emperor's reign.

Emperor Longqing's reign lasted a mere six years and was succeeded by his son. He is generally considered one of the more liberal and open-minded emperors of the Ming dynasty however Longqing lacked the talent keenly needed for rulership and he eventually became more interested in pursuing personal gratification rather than ruling itself. Longqing died in 1572 and was only 35. Unfortunately, the country was still in decline due to corruption in the ruling class. Before Longqing passed away, he had instructed minister Zhang Juzheng to overlook affairs of state and dedicated advisor to the new emperor who was only 10.

The emperor Longqing was buried in Zhaoling 。

Wanli Emperor

Wanli Emperor was emperor of China between 1572 and 1620. Born Zhu Yijun, he was the Longqing Emperor's son. His rule of 48 years would be the longest in the Ming dynasty and it witnessed the steady decline of the dynasty. Wanli also saw the arrival of the first Jesuit missionary in Beijing, Matteo Ricci.

Early Reign


Wanli ascended the throne at the age of 9. For the first ten years of his reign, the young emperor was aided by a notable statesman, Zhang Juzheng . Zhang Juzheng directed the path of the country and exercised his skills and power as an able administrator. At the same time, Wanli deeply respected Zhang as a mentor and a valued minister. However as Wanli's reign progressed, different factions within the government began to openly oppose Zhang's policy as well as his powerful position in government and courted Wanli to dismiss Zhang. By 1582, Wanli was a young man of 19 and was tired of the strict routine Zhang still imposed on the emperor since childhood. As such, Wanli was willing to consider dismissing Zhang but before Wanli was able to act, Zhang died in 1582. After Zhang's death, Wanli felt that he was free of supervision and reversed many of Zhang's administrative improvements. In 1584, Wanli issued an edict and confiscated all of Zhang's personal wealth and his family members were purged. Overall during these 10 years, the Ming Dynasty's economy and military power prospered in a way not seen since the Yongle and "Ren Xuan Rule" during the 15th century.

Middle Reign


After Zhang Juzheng died, Wanli decided to take complete control of the government. During this early part of his rule he demonstrated himself to be a decent and diligent emperor. Overall, the economy continued to prosper and the country was extremely powerful. Unlike the 20 years at the end of his rule, Wanli at this time would attend every morning meeting and discuss affairs of state. The first eighteen years of Wanli's reign would be dominated by three wars that were all extremely successful:

* He defended against the Mongols. In the outer regions, one of the leaders rebelled and allied with the Mongols to attack the Ming. At this time, Wanli sent out the Li Chengliang ans sons to handle this situation, resulting in an overall success.

* Toyotomi Hideyoshi of Japan sent 200,000 soldiers in the first expedition to invade Korea. Wanli made three decisions. First, he sent reinforcements to support the Koreans. Second, if Koreans entered Ming territory, he gave them lodging. Third, told the Liaodong area to prepare and be careful. In actual combat, the first 2 battles were losses since the Ming Dynasty's troops under Li Rusong were inferior to the 200,000 strong Japanese army. Next, Wanli sent better commanders to handle the situation with more success. This resulted in negotiation that favored the Ming. Two years later, in 1596, Japan once again invaded and this time the Ming Dynasty suffered substantial casualties. However, that same year, Hideyoshi died and the Japanese lost their will to fight. This resulted in the Ming Dynasty defeating the demoralized Japanese army, sending them back.

* Yang Yin Long rebellion. At first, Wanli was still handling the war with Japan; therefore he only sent 3,000 troops for Yang Guo Zhu to command against this rebellion. Unfortunately, this 3,000 strong army was completely annihilated and Yang Guo Zhu died. When the war with Japan ended, Wanli turned his attention to Yang Yin Long sending Guo Zhi Zhang and Li Huo Long to lead the offensive. In the end, Li Huo Long would defeat the army of Yang and bring him back to the capital. After these three successful conflicts, Wanli stopped going to morning meetings, going into his later reign and his final 20 years on the throne.

Late Reign


During the latter years of Wanli's reign, he seldom attended state affairs and for years at a time would refuse to receive his ministers or read any reports sent to him. Wanli also extorted money from the government, and ultimately his own people, for his personal enjoyment. One example was the close attention he paid to the construction of his own tomb, which took decades to complete.

The Wanli Emperor then became disenchanted with the moralistic attacks and counterattacks of officials, becoming thoroughly alienated from his imperial role. Throughout the 1580s and 1590s, Wanli yearned to promote his third son by Lady Zheng as crown prince however many of his powerful ministers were opposed to the idea. This led to a clash between sovereign and ministers that lasted more than 15 years. Emperor Wanli eventually gave in October 1601 and promoted Zhu Changluo - later Emperor Taichang as crown prince. Although the ministers seemed to have overpowered the emperor, Wanli finally resorted to vengeful tactics of blocking or ignoring the conduct of administration. For years on end he refused to see his ministers or act upon memoranda. He refused to make necessary appointments, and eventually became so obese he was unable even to stand without assistance. The whole top echelon of Ming administration became understaffed. In short, Wanli tried to forget about his imperial responsibilities while building up personal wealth. Considering the emperor's required role as the linchpin of the state, this personal rebellion against the bureaucracy was not only bankruptcy but treason.¹

Finally, during this "dreaming period", the future threat of the Manchurians developed. The Jurchen area was eventually conquered by the military genius Nurhaci. Nurhaci would go on to create the Later Jin Empire which would now become an immediate threat. By this time, after 20 years, the Ming Dynasty army was in steep decline due to the lack of wars. On the other hand, while the Jurchens were of a fewer number, they were much more fiercer and more powerful. In the grand battle of Nun Er Chu in 1619, the Ming Dynasty sent out a force of 200,000 against the Later Jin Empire of 60,000, with Nurhaci controlling 6 banners and 45,000 as the central attack while Dai Shan and Huang Taji each controlled 7,500 troops and one banner attacked from the sides. After 5 days of battle, the Ming Dynasty had casualties over 100,000, with 70% of their food supply stolen. From this point on, the Ming Dynasty would lose its advantage to the Jurchens, setting up the eventual downfall of the Ming Dynasty to the later Qing Dynasty.



Scandal


In 1615 the court was hit by yet another scandal. A man by the name of Zhang Chai armed with no more than a wooden staff managed to chase off eunuchs guarding the gates and broke into Ci-Qing palace , then the Crown Prince’s living quarters. Zhang Chai was eventually subdued and thrown in prison. Initial investigation found him to be a lunatic, but upon further investigation by a more conscientious magistrate named Wang Zicai the man confessed to being party to a plot instigated by two eunuchs working under Lady Zheng. According to Zhang Chai’s confession, the two had promised him rewards for assaulting the Crown Prince thus implicating the Emperor’s favourite concubine in an assassination plot. Presented with the incriminating evidence and the gravity of the accusations, Emperor Wanli in an attempt to spare Lady Zheng personally presided over the case and laid the full blame on the two implicated eunuchs who were executed along with the would-be assassin. Although the case was quickly hushed up, it did not squelch public discussion and eventually became known as the "Case of the Palace Assault" , one of three notorious 'mysteries' of Late Ming Dynasty.

Family


Consorts


* Empress Xiaoduan , had no sons
* Empress Xiaojing , mother of Taichang Emperor. Initially a maid of the Dowager Empress who caught the eye of Emperor Wanli however Wanli only favoured Lady Zheng and all but ignored Xiaojing hence Taichang was not created crown prince until 1601. Her grandson, the Tianqi Emperor, promoted her to Empress Dowager. Thus she was re-buried from an Imperial Concubine's tomb to the Wanli Emperor's tomb. The Wanli Emperor therefore was the only Ming Dynasty Emperor buried with two wives.

Notable Concubine


* Lady Zheng , Wanli's favourite concubine which gave birth to Wanli's third son Zhu Changxun in 1586. Wanli was unable to promote Lady Zheng as Empress during his reign as well as his son Zhu Changxun as crown prince due to the opposition of his ministers. Wanli eventually promoted Lady Zheng as Empress on his deathbed in 1620. However, this order was never fulfilled by the officials before the fall of Ming Dynasty. In 1644, since Hongguang Emperor, the first sovereign of South Ming, was a grandson of Lady Zheng, the lady was finally promoted as Empress by the South Ming government, 14 years after her death.

Legacy and death


The Wanli emperor’s reign is representative of the decline of the Ming. It was said that the fall of the Ming dynasty was not as a result of Chongzhen Emperor's rule but due to Wanli's mismanagement that led to the demise of the dynasty. He was an unmotivated and avaricious ruler who allowed his country to fall apart under his rule. His reign was plagued with fiscal woes, military pressures, and angry bureaucrats. He also had sent eunuch supervisors to provinces to oversee mining operations which actually became covers for extortion. Discontent with the lack of morals during this time, a group of scholars and political activists loyal to Zhu Xi and against Wang Yangming, created the , a political group who believed in upright morals and tried to affect the government.

During the closing years of Wanli's reign, the Manchu began to conduct raids on the northern border of the Ming Empire. Their depredations ultimately led to the overthrow of the Ming dynasty in 1644. The Wanli Emperor died in 1620 and was buried in located on the outskirts of Beijing. His tomb is one of the biggest in the vicinity compared and is one of only two that are open to the public.
In 1997 China's Ministry of Public Security published a book on the history of the drug problem in which it was stated that the Wanli emperor's remains had been examined in 1958 and found to contain morphine residues at levels which indicate that he had been a heavy and habitual user of opium.

In many ways, he was a similar emperor to those emperors that were successful at first, but then loosened up and caused the eventual demise of the empire

Taichang Emperor

Taichang Emperor was the fourteenth of the Ming Dynasty. He was born ''Zhu Changluo'' , the eldest son of and succeeded his father as Emperor in 1620. However his reign came to an abrupt end less than one month after his coronation and was found dead one morning in the palace following a bout of diarrhea. He was succeeded by his son .

Early life


''Zhu Changluo'' was born in the tenth year of Emperor ''Wanli''’s reign to a common palace girl née ''Wang'' serving on the staff of ''Wanli'''s mother, the Dowager Empress ''Li'' . Although upon her pregnancy she was bestowed the title of "Consort ''Gong'' of Second Grade" , the mother of future Emperor ''Taichang'' was not one of the favourites of Emperor ''Wanli''. Consequently after he was born, ''Zhu Changluo'' was more or less completely ignored by his father Emperor ''Wanli'' even though, as the Emperor’s eldest son, he was by Ming law of succession, the heir presumptive.

''Zhu Changluo'' spent most of his life as a hapless pawn in the palace power struggle for the title of Crown Prince. His father Emperor ''Wanli'' openly preferred naming ''Zhu Changxun'' , Wanli Emperor's younger son by his favourite consort Lady ''Zheng'' , as Crown Prince over the seniority of ''Zhu Changluo'', but his intention was met with vehement opposition by most of his educated ministers. Frustrated by the multiple petitions to create ''Zhu Changluo'' as Crown Prince, Emperor ''Wanli'' decided to stonewall the entire issue. Some historians have suggested that the impasse on the selection of Crown Prince was part of the cause of Emperor ''Wanli'''s withdrawal from day to day government administration.

Caught in this political limbo, ''Zhu Changluo'' was deliberately not assigned a regular tutor nor given any systematic Confucian education even after he started school at thirteen years old — an unusually late age for Ming princes to begin their education. Finally in 1601 Emperor ''Wanli'' gave in to pressure from his ministers and more importantly from his mother the Dowager Empress and a nineteen year old ''Zhu Changluo'' was formally created Crown Prince and heir apparent to his father. However this formal recognition did not signal the end of court intrigues. Rumours of Emperor ''Wanli'''s intend to replace the Crown Prince with his younger son by Lady ''Zheng'' continued to resurface through the years,

In 1615 the court was hit by yet another scandal. A man by the name of ''Zhang Chai'' armed with no more than a wooden staff managed to chase off eunuchs guarding the gates and broke into ''Ci-Qing'' palace , then the Crown Prince’s living quarters. ''Zhang Chai'' was eventually subdued and thrown in prison. Initial investigation found him to be a lunatic, but upon further investigation by a more conscientious magistrate named ''Wang Zicai'' the man confessed to being party to a plot instigated by two eunuchs working under Lady ''Zheng''. According to ''Zhang Chai''’s confession, the two had promised him rewards for assaulting the Crown Prince thus implicating the Emperor’s favourite concubine in an assassination plot. Presented with the incriminating evidence and the gravity of the accusations, Emperor ''Wanli'' in an attempt to spare Lady ''Zheng'' personally presided over the case and laid the full blame on the two implicated eunuchs who were executed along with the would-be assassin. Although the case was quickly hushed up, it did not squelch public discussion and eventually became known as the "Case of the Palace Assault" , one of three notorious 'mysteries' of Late Ming Dynasty.

Short Reign & Death


Emperor ''Wanli'' died on August 18, 1620 and ''Zhu Chanluo'' officially ascended the throne on August 28, 1620 taking the era name ''Tai-Chang'', meaning "Magnificent Prosperity". The first few days of his reign started promisingly enough as recorded in official Ming court history. Two million teals of silver was entailed as a gift to the troops guarding the border, important bureaucratic posts left vacant during ''Wanli''’s long periods of administrative inactivity were finally starting to be filled, and many of the deeply unpopular extraordinary taxes and duties imposted by the late Emperor were also revoked at this time. However ten days after his coronation Emperor ''Taichang'' was taken ill. So grave was the new Emperor's physical condition his birthday celebration originally planned for the next day was canceled.

According to some non-official primary sources, ''Taichang''’s illness was brought about by excessive sexual indulgence after he was presented with eight beautiful serving girls by his nemesis Lady ''Zheng'' as a coronation gift. The Emperor's already serious condition was further compounded by severe diarrhea after taking a dose of laxative recommended by an attending eunuch ''Cui Wensheng'' on September 10. Finally on September 25 to counter the effects of the laxative, he asked for and took a red pill presented by a minor court official named ''Li Kezhuo'' who dabbled in apothecary.

It was recorded in the official Ming court history that Emperor ''Taichang'' felt much better after taking the pill, regained his appetite and repeatedly praised ''Li Kezhou'' as a "Loyal subject" . That same afternoon the Emperor took a second pill and was found dead the next morning. The death of a second Emperor who was seemingly in good health within the span of a month sent shock waves through the empire and started rumours flying. The much talked about mystery surrounding the Emperor's death became known as the infamous "Case of the Red Pills" . The fate of ''Li Kezhuo'' whose pills were at the center of this controversy became a hotly contested subject between competing power factions of officials and eunuchs vying for influence at the Ming Court. Opinions ranged from awarding him money for the Emperor's initial recovery to executing his entire family for murdering the Emperor. The question was finally settled in 1625 when ''Li Kezhuo'' was exiled to the border regions on the order of the powerful eunuch ''Wei Zhongxian'' signaling the total dominance of eunuchs during the reign of ''Taichang''’s son .

Epilogue


''Taichang''’s untimely death threw the Ming Court into some logistical disarray. Firstly the court was still officially in mourning over the passing of the late ''Wanli'' Emperor whose corpse at this point was still lying in state waiting for an auspicious date to be interred. Secondly, all imperial tombs were custom made by the reigning Emperor and there was no proper place to bury ''Taichang'' who had only just ascended the throne. A tomb was hastily commissioned over the foundation of the demolished tomb of . The construction was finally completed on the eighth month of 1621 and consecrated ''Qing Ling'' . Finally on the question of naming the Emperor’s reign, although the Emperor had taken the formal era name of ''‘Taichang’'', it was sandwiched between the Forty-eighth year of ''Wanli'' era and the first year of his son’s ''Tianqi'' era . After much discussion it was decided to adopt an official ''Zuo Guangdou''’s suggestion that Wanli era ends on the seventh lunar month of 1620, while ''Taichang'' era spans the eighth to twelfth months of the same year. ''Tianqi'' era officially starts from the first lunar month of 1621.

From a historical perspective, ''Taichang''’s reign by nature of its short time span amounts to nothing more than a footnote in Ming history. It exposed the constitutional weakness of Ming Dynasty's autocratic system when headed by a weak Emperor as typified by ''Taichang'' and his successor. From the limited information gleaned from official Ming court history on the life of the Emperor, he came across as an introverted half-literate alcoholic satirical weakling. Given this dismal track record there is no evidence that had ''Taichang'' reign lasted any longer than it did, he could have turned around the fortunes of the beleaguered Ming Dynasty after the long steady decline of the latter years of ''Wanli'''s reign.

Family


*Father:
*Mother: Lady ''Gong'', née ''Wang'' ; Posthumously dubbed Dowager Empress ''Xiaojin'' by Emperor ''Taichang''. Full posthumous title in : 孝靖温懿敬让贞慈参天胤圣皇太后.

Consorts


# Crown Princess, née Guo ; Posthumously created Empress Xiaoyuanzhen by ; Full posthumous title in : 孝元昭懿哲惠莊仁合天弼圣贞皇后.
# Consort Fifth Grade, née Wang ; Posthumously created Empress Dowager Xiaohe by ; Full posthumous title in : 孝和恭献温穆徽慈谐天鞠圣皇太后.
# Consort Seventh Grade, née Liu ; Posthumously created Empress Dowager Xiaochun by ; Full posthumous title in : 孝纯恭懿淑穆莊静毘天毓圣皇太后.
# Consort 'Kang' of Second Grade, née Li , commonly called "Lady Li of the West"
# Consort 'Zhuang' of Second Grade, née Li , commonly called "Lady Li of the East"
# Consort Sixth Grade, née Xiao
# Consort Sixth Grade, née Wang
# Consort Sixth Grade, née Li
# Consort 'Ding-Yi' of Second Grade
# Consort 'Jing' of Second Grade

Sons


# Zhu Youxiao , later . Son of Empress Dowager Xiaohe.
# Zhu Youxue , son of Empress Dowager Xiaohe. Died at age four.
# Zhu Youji , son of Consort Sixth Grade, Lady Wang. Died at age eight.
# Zhu Youmo , son of Consort Sixth Grade, Lady Li. Died at age five.
# Zhu Youjian , later . Son of Empress Dowager Xiaochun.
# Zhu Youyi , son of Consort 'Ding-Yi' of Second Grade, stillborn.
# Zhu Youshan , son of Consort 'Jing' of Second Grade, stillborn.

Daughters


# Princess Huaishu , died at age seven.
# Princess Ninde .
# Princess Yiping .
# Princess LeAn .
Additional five daughters stillborn.

Tianqi Emperor

The Tianqi Emperor was the 15th emperor of the Ming dynasty from 1620 to 1627. Born Zhu Youjiao, he was the Taichang Emperor's eldest son.

Biography


Zhu Youxiao became emperor at the age of fifteen, on the death of his father who ruled less than a month. He did not pay much attention to affairs of state, and was accused of failing in his filial duties to his dead father by not continuing his father's wishes. It is possible that Zhu Youxiao suffered from a learning disability or something more. He was illiterate and showed no interest in his studies.

Because he was unable to read memorials and uninterested in the affairs of state, his head eunuch, Wei Zhongxian usurped the power along with Madam Ke, Zhu Youxiao's nanny. Zhu Youxiao apparently devoted his time to carpentry. Wei took advantage of the situation and began appointing the people he trusted to important positions in the palace. Meanwhile Madam Ke, who was the nanny of the young emperor sought to retain power by removing all other women from the emperor's harem by locking away the concubines of the emperor and starving them to death.

One Confucian moralist group, the , expressed distress at the conditions of the Imperial State. In response, the palace covertly ordered the execution of a number of officials associated with the Donglin. Living conditions worsened during his reign and Tianqi faced several popular uprisings.

Zhu Youxiao died in 1627 and was succeeded by his younger brother.

Hongwu Emperor


The Hongwu Emperor , known variably by his given name Zhu Yuanzhang and by the temple name Taizu of the was the founder and first emperor of the Ming Dynasty of China. His era name, Hongwu, literally means "Vast Military".

For many reasons, including Mongol laws which placed Chinese in the lowest of four legal categories, many Chinese viewed the Yuan Dynasty as illegitimate. In the middle of the 1300s, with famine and plagues and peasant revolts sweeping across China, Zhu became a leader of an army that conquered China, ending the Yuan Dynasty and forcing the Mongols to retreat to the Mongolian steppes. With his conquest of the Mongolian capital , he claimed the title Son of Heaven and established the Ming Dynasty in the year 1368.

Early Life


Zhu Yuanzhang was born in 1328 in Pei County, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province as the youngest of four sons. His family were poor peasants and he grew up under conditions of great hardship. Because his family did not have enough food, several of his siblings were "given away" by his parents. When he was 16 a terrible disaster struck, the Yellow River broke its banks and flooded the lands where his family was living. In short order both his parents died as well as his siblings and he was left destitute. He found shelter in a local Buddhist monastery. Zhu's life in the monastery did not last long as the monastery also ran out of money and he was forced to leave it.

The next several years were hard, he traveled, he begged for food, and he saw first hand the troubles of the people. After some three years he returned to the monastery and stayed there till he was about 24 years old. He learned to read and write during his time with the Buddhist monks. In later years, while he remained sympathetic to Buddhism, he himself did not become a Buddhist. The Mongol army, out trying to destroy a local rebellion, burned Zhu's monastery down. In 1352 Zhu joined one of the many groups of local rebels who were appearing throughout China. Zhu's natural abilities allowed him to rise rapidly to a position of command in the group. Zhu's local rebels soon joined with the and he soon married the leader's daughter. Upon the leader's death in 1355, Zhu was given command of the army, at age 27.

Leader of the Ming


The Red Turbans were a millenarian sect, related to the White Lotus Society, and its ideology was mixture of Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and other religions. The degree to which Zhu actually believed in the Red Turban ideals is unknown, once he became Emperor he solidly supported Confucianism and disavowed the White Lotus beliefs.

In 1356, Zhu's army conquered one of the major cities in China: Nanjing. This became his base of operations and was the official capital of the Ming empire throughout his lifetime. Zhu's government in Nanjing and the surrounding territory quickly became famous as a good government and the city attracted vast numbers of people fleeing from other, more lawless regions. It is estimated the city population grew 10 times over the next 10 years . The Mongols government, nearly paralyzed by internal factions fighting for control, made little effort to retake the Yangtze river valley and by 1358, nearly the whole of central and southern China was in the hands of different rebel groups. The Red Turbans themselves broke up, Zhu became the leader of a smaller faction , while the larger faction, under Chen Youliang, controlled the center of the Yangtze river valley.

Zhu was able to attract many talented followers. One such follower was Zhu Sheng(朱升), who is credited with giving this advice to Zhu: ''"Build high walls, stock up rations, and don't be too quick to call yourself a king."'' Another follower was Jiao Yu, an artillery officer who later compiled a military treatise outlining the various gunpowder weapons. Yet another was Liu Ji, a key advisor who, in later years, edited the military-technology treatise titled ''Huolongjing''.

Starting in 1360, Zhu and Chen Youliang fought a protracted war for supremacy over the Red Turban territory. The pivotal moment in the war was the enormous Battle of Lake Poyang , one of the . The battle lasted three days and at the end of the third day, the larger navy of Chen Youliang broke away and retreated. Chen Youliang died a month later in battle, leaving Zhu the single strongest leader in China. He was 35 years old. Zhu did not fight in battle again, from this point on his generals fought campaigns which he directed from his palace in Nanjing.

In 1366 Zhu's forces defeated the other major warlord who was based in the old Song Dynasty capital of Hangchow. This conquest gave Zhu's Ming government authority over the entire length of the Yangtze and much of the territory both north and south of the river. The other major warlords submitted to Zhu and in the next year his armies headed north to take on the Mongols. The Mongols, somewhat curiously, gave up northern China without much of a fight and fled north into their homeland in what is now northern Mongolia.

With the Mongol capital captured, in 1368, Zhu proclaimed himself the emperor in Nanjing and adopted "Hongwu" as the title of his reign. He used the motto 'Exiling the Mongols and Restoring '. The last loyal Mongol province of Yunan was captured in 1370 and China was unified again under the .

Beginning of Reign


Zhu proclaimed himself emperor in 1368. The capital remained at Nanjing, and "Hongwu" was adopted as the title of his reign.

Under Hongwu, the Mongol bureaucrats who had dominated the government for nearly a century under the Yuan Dynasty were replaced by Han Chinese. Hongwu revamped the traditional Confucian examination system, which selected state bureaucrats or civil servants on the basis of merit and knowledge of literature and philosophy, mostly the . Candidates for posts in the civil service, or in the officer corps of the 80,000-man army, once again had to pass the , as required by the Classics. The Confucian scholar gentry, marginalized under the Yuan for nearly a century, once again assumed their predominant role in the Chinese state.

The rejection of things associated with the Mongols also continued into other areas. These included Mongol dress, which was discarded, and Mongol names, which stopped being used. Indeed, attacks on Mongol-associated items and places also included the attack of palaces and administrative buildings used by the Yuan rulers.

Land Reform & Peasantry



Having come from a peasant family, Hongwu knew only too well how much the farmers suffered from the gentry and the wealthy. Many of the latter, relying on their influence with the magistrates, not only encroached unscrupulously on the land of farmers, but even contrived through bribing lower officials to transfer the burden of taxation to the small farmers they had wronged. To prevent such abuses, Hongwu instituted two very important systems: "Yellow Records" and "Fish Scale Records". These systems served to guarantee both the government's income from land taxes and the people's enjoyment of their property.

However, while the reforms were well-meaning, they did not eliminate the threat of the scholar-gentry to peasants. Rather, the expansion of the scholar-gentry and their growing prestige translated into more wealth and tax exemption for those related to government bureaucrats. The gentry gained new privileges, often allowing them to show off their wealth, and they often were money-lenders, if not also managers of gambling rings. Using their power, the scholar-gentry often expanded their estates at the expense of small farmers who were absorbed into the estates, both through outright purchase of peasants' land, and foreclosure on their mortgages during times of want. These peasants often became either tenants and workers, or left and searched for employment elsewhere.

In 1372, Hongwu ordered the general release of all innocent people who had been enslaved during the anxious days at the end of the Mongol reign. Fourteen years later, he ordered his officials to buy back children in the Huinan province who had been sold as slaves by their parents because of famine.

From the beginning of his government in 1357, great care was taken by Hongwu to distribute land to small farmers. It seems to have been his policy to favor the poor, whom he tried to help to support themselves and their families. Public works projects, such as the construction of irrigation systems and dikes, were undertaken, in an attempt to help poor farmers. Additionally, demands on the peasantry for forced labor were reduced by Hongwu. In 1370, an order was given that some land in Hunan and Anhui should be distributed to young farmers who had reached manhood. This order was made in part to preclude the absorption of this land by unscrupulous landlords, and, as part of this decree, it was announced that the title to the land would not be transferable. During the middle part of his reign, an edict was published to the effect that those who brought fallow land under cultivation could keep it as their property without it ever being taxed. The people responded enthusiastically to this policy, and in 1393 cultivated land rose to 8,804,623 ching and 68 mou, a greater achievement than any other Chinese dynasty.

Military


Despite having fought off the calamities of the Mongol invasion, Hongwu realized that the Mongols still posed a real threat to China. He decided that the orthodox Confucian view of the military as an inferior class to the scholar bureaucracy should be reasessed, as maintaining a strong military was essential. Hongwu kept a powerful army organized on the military system known as Wei-so, which was similar to the Fu-ping system of the Tang dynasty. While initially the Ming army was very effective, it rapidly lost its capacity for offensive operations after the death of the Yongle Emperor and it suffered a terrible defeat at the hands of the Mongols in 1449 at the .

Military training was conducted within the soldiers' own military districts. In time of war, troops were mobilized from all over the empire on the orders of a Board of War, and commanders were chosen to lead them. As soon as the war was over, all of the troops returned to their respective districts and the commanders lost their military commands. This system largely avoided troubles of the kind which destroyed the Tang; namely military commanders who had large numbers of soldiers directly under their personal control. However, the downside was the Ming military, for large campaigns, was always placed under the control of a civilian official from the capital.

Zhu Yuanzhang also employed commanders in his army: Chang Yuqun, Lan Yu, Ding Dexing, Mu Ying.

Consolidating Control



As time went on, Hongwu increasingly feared rebellions and coups. He even made it a capital offence for any of his advisors to criticise him. A story goes that a Confucian scholar who was fed up with Hongwu's policies decided to go to the capital and berate the emperor. When he gained an audience with the emperor, he brought his own coffin along with him. After delivering his speech he climbed into the coffin, expecting the emperor to execute him. Instead, the Emperor was so impressed by his bravery that he spared his life.

Hongwu also noted the destructive role of court eunuchs, castrated servants of the emperor, under the previous dynasties and drastically reduced their numbers, forbidding them to handle documents, insisting that they remained illiterate, and executing those who commented on state affairs. Hongwu had a strong aversion to the imperial eunuchs, epitomized by a tablet in his palace stipulating: "Eunuchs must have nothing to do with the administration." However, this aversion to eunuchs' being in the employ of an emperor was not popular with Hongwu's successors, and eunuchs soon returned to the emperors' courts after Hongwu. In addition to Hongwu's aversion to eunuchs, he never consented to any of his imperial relatives becoming court officials. This policy was fairly well-maintained by later emperors, and no serious trouble was caused by the empresses or their relatives.

Hongwu attempted to, and largely succeeded in, consolidating control over all aspects of government, so that no other group could gain enough power to overthrow him. He also buttressed the country's defenses against the Mongols. As emperor, Hongwu increasingly concentrated power in his own hands. He abolished the prime minister's post, which had been head of the main central administrative body under past dynasties, by suppressing a plot for which he had blamed his chief minister. Many argue that the Hongwu emperor, because of his wish to concentrate absolute authority in his own hands, removed the only insurance against incompetent emperors. However Hongwu's actions were not entirely one-sided since he did create a new post, called "Grand Secretary", to take the place of the abolished prime minister. Ray Huang argued that Grand-Secretaries, outwardly powerless, could exercise considerable positive influence from behind the throne. Because of their prestige and the public trust which they enjoyed, they could act as intermediaries between the emperor and the ministerial officials, and thus provide a stabilising force in the court.

One of the reasons why the emperor eliminated the offices of grand councilor, particularly the prime minister, was due to Hu Wei-young's attempt to usurp the throne. Hu was the Senior grand councilor and a very close friend of the emperor. He was later executed. His actions greatly shocked the emperor and led the emperor to greatly distrust his high officials. To that end, he completely eliminated all the prime ministers and established four advisors or the Grand-Secretaries to work closely with, who were intellectually able, though low ranking. Eliminating the office of the prime minister was the very step that increased the emperor's autocracy in the government.

Legal Code


The legal code drawn up in the time of the Hongwu emperor was considered one of the great achievements of the era. The Ming Shih mentions that as early as 1364 the monarchy had started to draft a code of laws. This code was known as Ta-Ming Lu. The emperor devoted great personal care to the whole project, and in his instruction to the ministers told them that the code of laws should be comprehensive and intelligible, so as not to leave any loophole for lower officials to misinterpret the law through twisting its language. The Ming code laid much emphasis on family relations. The code was a great improvement on the code of the earlier Tang dynasty in regards to the treatment of slaves. Under the Tang code, slaves were treated as a species of domestic animal; if they were killed by a free citizen the law imposed no sanction on the killer. Under the Ming dynasty, however, the law protected both slaves and free citizens.

Confucianism


Backed by the Confucian scholar-gentry, Hongwu accepted the Confucian viewpoint that merchants were solely parasitic. Hongwu felt that agriculture should be the country's source of wealth and that trade was ignoble. Perhaps this view was the result of his having been a peasant himself. As a result, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture, unlike the economic system of the Song Dynasty, which had preceded the Mongols and had relied on traders and merchant for revenues. Also as a result of this aversion to trade, Hongwu supported the creation of self-supporting agricultural communities.

However, Hongwu's prejudice against the merchants did not diminish the numbers of traders. On the contrary, commerce increased significantly under Hongwu due to the growth of industry throughout the empire. This growth in trade was due in part to poor soil conditions and the overpopulation of certain areas, which forced many people to leave their homes and seek their fortunes in trade. A book entitled ''Tu Pien Hsin Shu'', written during the Ming dynasty, gives a very detailed description about the activities of merchants at that time.

Growth of Dynasty and Death



Although Hongwu's rule saw the introduction of paper currency, capitalist development was stifled from the beginning. Not understanding inflation, Hongwu gave out so much paper money as rewards that by 1425 the state was forced to reintroduce copper coins because the paper currency had sunk to only 1/70 of its original value.

During Hongwu's reign, the early Ming Dynasty was characterised by rapid and dramatic population growth, largely due to the increased food supply from Hongwu's agricultural reforms.. By the end of the dynasty, the population had risen by perhaps as much as 50%. This was stimulated by major improvements in agricultural technology, promoted by the pro-agrarian state which came to power in the midst of a pro-Confucian peasant's rebellion. Under his tutelage, living standards greatly improved.

Hongwu died after a reign of 30 years in 1398 at the age of 69. None of his reigning descendants lived as long as he did.

Assessment



Historians consider Hongwu to be one of the most significant Emperors of China. As historian Ebrey puts it "Seldom has the course of Chinese history been influenced by a single personality as much as it was by the founder of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang." Coming from the poorest of backgrounds his rise to power was stunningly fast. In eleven years he went from being a penniless monk to the most powerful war leader in China. Five years later, he was the Emperor. Simon Leys has described him as:-
'an adventurer from peasant stock, poorly educated, a man of action, a bold and shrewd tactician, a visionary mind, in many respects a creative genius; naturally coarse, cynical, and ruthless, he eventually showed symptoms of paranoia, bordering on psychopathy.'


He had 24 sons, all of whom became princes. They include:
* Zhu Biao , Hongwu's first child, and the father of his successor Jianwen
* , Hongwu's fourth son, and third emperor after assumption of the throne from Jianwen
* Zhu Quan , 17th son

Names


Hongwu also is known as Hung-Wu. That name is also applied to the period of years from 1368 to 1398 when Zhu Yuanzhang ruled. Other names for him include, his temple name Ming Tàizǔ "Great Ancestor of the Ming", and the "Beggar King," in allusion to his early poverty.

Media Portrayals


The Hongwu emperor's life story was the focus of a 2006 CCTV-8 period drama Chuan Qi Huang Di Zhu Yuan Zhang .

Jianwen Emperor

The Jianwen Emperor , with the personal name Zhu Yunwen, reigned as the second of the Ming dynasty.

His father, Crown Prince Zhu Biao , was the son and designated heir of the Hongwu Emperor. When Zhu Biao died in 1392 before ascending to the throne, the Hongwu emperor made Zhu Biao's son Zhu Yunwen his successor, rather than Zhu Biao's younger brother .

The Jianwen reign was short . After he assumed the throne, Zhu Yunwen began to suppress feudal lords which included Zhu Yunwen's uncle Zhu Di. Feeling threatened, in 1399 Zhu Di raised an army and began to march towards Nanjing from his northern base in Beijing under the banner of the Jingnan campaign. In 1402 Zhu Di's army finally reached Nanjing and after a brief fight Zhu Di was finally able to usurp Zhu Yunwen's throne. To avoid capture, Zhu Yunwen and his concubines is said to have died in a fire of the palace during the coup. The Jianwen emperor was advised by a group of scholars, later known as the Four Martyrs, who were killed by Yongle. The record of Jianwen's rule was systematically erased by Yongle and no temple name was given to Jianwen.

Yongle Emperor

The Yongle Emperor , born Zhu Di , was the third emperor of the Ming Dynasty of China from 1402 to 1424. His era name "Yongle" means "Perpetual Happiness". He is generally considered arguably the greatest emperor of the Ming Dynasty, and to be among the greatest Chinese emperors.

He was the Prince of Yan , possessing a heavy military base in Beijing. He became known as Chengzu of Ming Dynasty after becoming emperor following a civil war. His usurpation of the throne is now sometimes called the "Second Founding" of the Ming.

He moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, and constructed the Forbidden City there. After its dilapidation and disuse during the Yuan Dynasty and , the Yongle Emperor had the Grand Canal of China repaired and reopened in order to supply the new capital of Beijing in the north with a steady flow of goods and southern foodstuffs. He commissioned most of the exploratory sea voyages of Zheng He. During his reign the monumental ''Yongle Encyclopedia'' was completed. Although his father Zhu Yuanzhang was reluctant to do so when he was emperor, Yongle upheld the for drafting instead of using simple recommendation and appointment.

The Yongle Emperor is buried in the Changling tomb, the central and largest mausoleum of the Ming Dynasty Tombs.

Early years


The Yongle Emperor was born Zhu Di on May 2, 1360 as the fourth son of the new leader of the central , Zhu Yuanzhang, who would later rise to become the Hongwu Emperor, the first emperor of the Ming Dynasty. Although Zhu Di would always claim that his mother was the Empress Ma this is almost certainly not true. His real mother is now thought to have been a secondary wife of Korean origin. Zhu Di grew up as a prince in a loving, caring environment. His father supplied nothing but the best education for his sons and eventually gave them their own princedoms. Zhu Di was entitled as the Prince of Yan, the area around Beijing.

When Zhu Di moved to Beijing, the city had been devastated by famine and disease and was under threat of invasion from Mongolians from the north. Zhu Di, with help from his father-in-law, General Xu Da, secured the northern borders.

Zhu Di had been very successful against the Mongols and impressed his father with his energy, risk-taking ability and leadership. Even Zhu Di's troops praised his effectiveness, especially when Emperor Hongwu rewarded them for their service. But Zhu Di was not the oldest brother, forcing his father to name the Prince of Jin the crown prince. When the Prince of Jin died of illness in 1392, worries of imperial succession ensued.

Journey to power



Hongwu died on June 24, 1398, and was crowned as . Almost immediately Zhu Di and Jianwen began their deadly feud. When Zhu Di traveled with his guard unit to pay tribute to his father, Jianwen took his actions as a threat and sent forces to turn him around. Zhu Di was forced to leave in humiliation. Jianwen persisted in refusing to let Zhu Di see his father's tomb and Zhu Di challenged the emperor's judgment. Zhu Di quickly became the biggest threat to the imperial court. Jianwen's policy tried to avoid direct contact as much as possible. To achieve this, he abolished the lesser princedoms to undermine Zhu Di's power and create room in which to plant his own loyal generals. Zhu Di was soon surrounded by Jianwen's generals, and cautiously reacted to the political gridlock in which he found himself. His rebellion slowly began to take shape.

Zhu Di's leading rebellion slogan was self defense and was enough to earn him strong support from the populace and many supporting generals. He was a great military commander and studied Sun Tzu's '''' extensively. He used surprise, deception, and caution and even questionable tactics such as enlisting several Mongolian regiments to aid him in fighting Jianwen. He defeated Li Jinglong, a loyalist general, several times, deceiving him and overwhelming him in many decisive battles. On January 15, 1402 Zhu Di made the bold decision to march his army straight to Nanjing, encountering stiff resistance. But his decision proved successful, forcing an imperial retreat to defend the defenseless residence of Jianwen. When Zhu Di reached the capital city, the frustrated and disgraced General Li Jinglong opened the doors and permitted Zhu Di's army to freely enter. In the wide spread panic caused by the sudden entry, the emperor's palace caught fire and Jianwen and his wife disappeared, most likely falling victim to the fire.

Zhu Di had ended Jianwen's reign. Zhu Di and his administration spent the latter part of 1402 brutally purging China of Jianwen's supporters. Such an action was believed to be required to pacify China and maintain his rule. He ordered all records of the four-year-reign of Jianwen Emperor to be dated as year 32 through year 35 of the Hongwu Emperor, in order to establish himself as the legitimate successor of the Hongwu Emperor.

Zhu Di has been credited with ordering perhaps the only case of "extermination of the ten agnates" in the history of China. For nearly 1500 years of feudal China, the "extermination of nine agnates" is considered one of the most severe punishments found in traditional Chinese law enforced until the end of . The practice of exterminating the kins had been established since when Emperor Qin Shi Huang declared "Those who criticize the present with that of the past: ''Zu''" . ''Zu'' referred to the "extermination of three agnates" : father, son and grandson. The extermination was to ensure the elimination of challenges to the throne and political enemies. extended it to the nine agnates. The nine agnates are the four senior generations to the great-great-grandfather and four junior generations to the great-great-grandson. The definition also included siblings and cousins related to each of the nine agnates.

Just before the accession of Emperor Yongle, prominent historian Fang Xiaoru elicited the offense worthy of the "extermination of nine agnates" for refusing to write the and for insulting the Emperor. He was recorded as saying in defiance to the would-be Emperor: "莫說九族,十族何妨!" . Thus he was granted his wish with perhaps the only and infamous case of "extermination of ten agnates" in the history of China. In addition to the blood relations from his nine-agnates family hierarchy, his students and peers were added to be the 10th group.

Regardless, on July 17, 1402, after a brief visit to his father's tomb, Zhu Di was crowned Emperor Yongle at the age of 42. He would spend most of his early years suppressing rumors, stopping bandits, and healing the wounds of the land scarred by rebellion.

Reign



Yongle followed traditional rituals closely and remained superstitious. He did not overindulge in the luxuries of palace life, but still used Buddhism and Buddhist festivals to overcome some of the backwardness of the Chinese frontier and to help calm civil unrest. He stopped the warring between the various Chinese tribes and reorganized the provinces to best provide peace within China.

Due to the stress and overwhelming amount of thinking involved in running a post-rebellion empire, Yongle searched for scholars to join his staff. He had many of the best scholars chosen as candidates and took great care in choosing them, even creating terms by which he hired people. He was also concerned about the degeneration of Buddhism in China.

In 1403, inviting Deshin Shekpa, the fifth Gyalwa Karmapa of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism, to visit China—apparently after having a vision of Avalokitesvara. After a long journey, Deshin Shekpa arrived in Nanjing on April 10, 1407 riding on an elephant towards the imperial palace, where tens of thousands of monks greeted him.

He convinced the emperor that there were different religions for different people and that does not mean that one is better than the other. The Karmapa was very well received in China and a number of miraculous occurrences are reported he also performed ceremonies for the emperor's family. The emperor presented him with 700 measures of silver objects and bestowed the title of 'Precious Religious King, Great Loving One of the West, Mighty Buddha of Peace'.

Aside from the religious matters, the Emperor wished to establish an alliance with the Karmapa similar to the one the Yuan rulers had established with the Sakyapa. He apparently offered to send armies to unify Tibet under the Karmapa but Deshin Shekpa refused this rather un-Buddhist offer.

Deshin left Nanjing on 17th May, 1408. In 1410 he returned to where he had his monastery rebuilt which had been severely damaged by an earthquake.

When it was time for him to choose an heir, Yongle very much wanted to choose his second son, Gaoxu. Gaoxu was an athletic warrior type that contrasted sharply with his older brother's intellectual and humanitarian nature. Despite much counsel from his advisors, Yongle chose his older son, Gaozhi , as his heir apparent mainly due to advising from Xie Jin. As a result, Gaoxu became infuriated and refused to give up jockeying for his father's favor and refusing to move to Yunnan province . He even went so far as to undermine Xie Jin's council and eventually killed him.

After Yongle's overthrow of Jianwen, China's countryside was devastated. The fragile new economy had to deal with low production and depopulation. Yongle laid out a long and extensive plan to strengthen and stabilize the new economy, but first he had to silence dissension. He created an elaborate system of censors to remove corrupt officials from office that spread such rumors. Yongle dispatched some of his most trusted officers to reveal or destroy secret societies, Jianwen loyalists, and even bandits. To strengthen the economy, he was forced to fight population decline by reclaiming land, utilizing the most he could from the Chinese people, and maximizing textile and agricultural production.

Yongle also worked to reclaim production rich regions such as the Lower and called for a massive rebuilding of the Grand Canal of China. During his reign, the Grand Canal was almost completely rebuilt and was eventually moving imported goods from all over the world. Yongle's short-term goal was to revitalize northern urban centers, especially his new capital at Beijing. Before the Grand Canal was reinstated grain was transferred to Beijing in two ways; one route was simply via the East China Sea; the other was a far more laborious process of transferring the grain from large to small shallow barges , then transferred back to large river barges on the Yellow River before finally reaching Beijing. With the necessary tribute grain shipments of 4 million ''shi'' to the north each year, both processes became incredibly inefficient.

Yongle ambitiously planned to move China's capital to Beijing. According to a popular legend, the capital was moved when the emperor's advisors brought the emperor to the hills surrounding Nanjing and pointed out the emperor's palace showing the vulnerability of the palace to artillery attack.
He planned to build a massive network of structures in Beijing in which government offices, officials, and the imperial family itself resided. After a painfully long construction time, the Forbidden City was finally completed and became the political capital of China for the next 500 years.

Yongle sponsored and created many cultural traditions in China. He promoted Confucianism and kept traditional ritual ceremonies with a rich cultural theme. His respect for Chinese culture was apparent. He commissioned his grand secretary, Xie Jin, to write a compilation of every subject and every known book of the Chinese. The massive project's goal was to preserve Chinese culture and literature in writing. The initial copy took 17 months to transcribe and another copy was transcribed in 1557. The book, named the Yongle Encyclopedia, is still considered one of the most marvelous human achievements in history, despite it being lost by time.

Yongle's tolerance of Chinese ideas that did not agree with his own philosophies was well-known. He treated Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism equally . Strict Confucianists considered him hypocritical, but his even handed approach helped him win the support of the people and unify China. His love for sparked a sincere hatred for culture. He considered it rotten and forbade the use of popular Mongolian names, habits, language, and clothing. Great lengths were taken by Yongle to eradicate Mongolian culture from China.

Military accomplishments



Mongol invaders were still causing many problems for the Ming Dynasty. Traditionally, Han Chinese dynasties rarely went on the offensive against the Mongols. But Yongle prepared to change this less-than-proud tradition. He mounted five military expeditions into Mongolia and crushed the remnants of the Yuan Dynasty that had fled north after being defeated by Emperor Hongwu. He repaired the northern defenses and forged buffer alliances to keep the Mongols at bay in order to build an army. His strategy was to force the Mongols into economic dependence on the Chinese, gather national support against them, and to launch periodic initiatives into Mongolia to cripple their offensive power. He attempted to compel Mongolia to become a Chinese tributary, with all the tribes submitting and proclaiming themselves vassals of the Ming, and wanted to contain and isolate the Mongols. Through fighting, Yongle learned to appreciate the importance of cavalry in battle and eventually began spending much of his resources to keep horses in good supply. Yongle spent his entire life fighting the Mongols. Failures and successes came and went, but it should be noted that after Yongle's second personal campaign against the Mongols, the Northern Ming Dynasty was at peace for over seven years.

Vietnam was a significant source of difficulties during Yongle's reign. In 1406, The Yongle Emperor responded to several formal petitions from members of the Tran Dynasty, however on arrival to Vietnam, both the Tran prince and the accompanying Chinese ambassador were ambushed and killed. In response to this insult the Yongle Emperor sent a huge army of 500,000 south to conquer Vietnam. As the royal family were all executed by the Ho monarchs Vietnam was integrated as a province of China, just as it had been up until 939. With the Ho monarch defeated in 1407 the Chinese began a serious and sustained effort to Sinicize the population. Unfortunately for the Chinese, their efforts to make Vietnam into a ''normal'' province met with a significant resistance from the local population. Several revolts started against the Chinese rulers. In early 1418 a major revolt was begun by Le Loi, the future founder of the Le Dynasty. By the time the Yongle Emperor died in 1424 the Vietnamese rebels under Le Loi's leadership had captured nearly the entire province. By 1427 the Xuande Emperor gave up the effort started by his grandfather and formally acknowledged Vietnam's independence.

Exploration of the World




As part of his desire to expand Chinese influence, Emperor Yongle sponsored the massive and long term Zheng He expeditions. These were China's only major sea-going explorations of the world . The first expedition launched in 1405 . The expeditions were all under the command of China's greatest admiral, Zheng He. At least seven expeditions were launched, each bigger and more expensive than the last. Some of the boats used were apparently the largest sail-powered boats in human history .

The Zheng He expeditions were a remarkable technical and logistical achievement. It is very likely that the last expedition reached as far as Madagascar, thousands of miles from where it started. Zhu Di's successors, the Hongxi Emperor and the Xuande Emperor, felt the expeditions were harmful to the Chinese state. The Hongxi Emperor ended further expeditions and the Xuande Emperor suppressed much of the information about the Zheng He voyages.

Death


On April 1, 1424, Yongle launched a large campaign into the Gobi Desert to chase a nuisance army of fleeting Tartars. Yongle became frustrated at his inability to catch up with his swift opponents and fell into a deep depression and then into illness . On August 12, 1424, the Yongle Emperor died. He was entombed in Chang-Ling , a location northwest of Beijing. The coordinate of his mausoleum is 40.301368 north, 116.243189 east.

Legacy


Many have seen Yongle as in a life-long pursuit of power, prestige, and glory. He respected and worked hard to preserve , by designing monuments such as the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing, while undermining and cleansing Chinese society of foreign cultures. He deeply admired and wished to save his father's accomplishments and spent a lot of time proving his claim to the throne. His military accomplishments and leadership are rivaled by only a handful of people in world history. His reign was a mixed blessing for the Chinese populace. Yongle's economic, educational, and military reforms provided unprecedented benefits for the people, but his style of government gave them no room to breathe. In addition, he executed many of his own generals and advisors for the sake of centralizing his power. This atrocity may also due to his suspicion of potential coup. Despite these negatives, he is considered the main architect and keeper of Chinese culture, history, and statecraft and one of the most influential rulers in Chinese history.

He is remembered very much for his cruelty, just like his father. There was an incident that he put thousands of ladies-in-waiting to death because of one of his concubines. However, unlike his father, he entrusted power to eunuchs like Zheng He, with serious consequences for subsequent Ming emperors. It is an irony that he chose the reign name "Yongle" which means "perpetual happiness".

Further reading



* Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry, ''Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle'', University of Washington Press, ISBN 0-295-98124-5
* Louise Levathes, ''When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-1433'', Oxford University Press, 1997, trade paperback, ISBN 0-19-511207-5

Hongxi Emperor

The Hongxi Emperor was an of the Ming Dynasty in China. He succeeded his father, Yongle, in 1424.

Biography


Yongle's eldest son Zhu Gaozhi was born August 16, 1378 and was educated by prominent Confucian tutors. He often acted as regent at Nanjing or at Beijing during his father's northern military campaigns.

As soon as he became Emperor Hongxi in September 1424, he canceled Zheng He's maritime expeditions and abolished frontier trade of tea for horses as well as missions for gold and pearls to Yunnan and . He restored disgraced Confucian officials and reorganized the administration to give high ranks to his close advisors. Hanlin academicians became grand secretaries, and they dismantled his father's unpopular militaristic policies to restore civil government. Hongxi improved finances by canceling requisitions for lumber, gold, and silver. Taxes were remitted so that vagrant farmers could return home, especially in the overburdened Yangtze River Delta. Hongxi appointed a commission to investigate taxes. He overruled his secretaries by ordering grain sent immediately to relieve areas of disaster.

He ordered the capital be moved back to Nanjing; but Emperor Hongxi died, probably of a heart attack, a month later in May 1425. His son had been declared heir apparent and became Emperor Xuande at age 26. Although Hongxi had a short reign, he is credited with reforms that made lasting improvements, and his liberal policies were carried on by his son, Xuande Emperor.

Xuande Emperor

The Xuande Emperor was emperor of China between 1425–1435.

Biography


Born Zhu Zhanji, he was emperor 's son. Xuande was also fond of poetry and literature. Emperor Xuande decided to keep Beijing as the capital. His uncle Zhu Gaoxu had been a favorite of Yongle for his military successes; but he disobeyed imperial instructions and in 1417 had been exiled to the small fief of Loan in Shandong. When Zhu Gaoxu revolted, the new emperor Xuande took 20,000 soldiers and attacked him at Loan. Zhu Gaoxu surrendered soon afterward. Zhu Gaoxu was reduced to a commoner and died from torture. Six hundred rebelling officials were executed, and 2200 were banished. The Emperor did not wish to execute his uncle at the start, but later events angered the Emperor so much, that Zhu Gaoxu was executed through fire torture, and all Zhu Gaoxu's sons were executed as well. It is very likely that Zhu Gaoxu's arrogance, which is well detailed in many historic texts, offended the Emperor. A theory states that when the Emperor went to visit his uncle, Zhu Gaoxu intentionally tripped the Emperor.

Emperor Xuande wanted to withdraw his troops from Annam, but some of his advisors disagreed. After Chinese garrisons suffered heavy casualties, the Emperor sent Liu Sheng with an army; but they were badly defeated by the Annamese, losing 70,000 men in 1427. The Chinese forces withdrew, and Xuande eventually recognized the independence of Annam. In the north Xuande was inspecting the border with 3,000 cavalry in 1428 and was able to punish a raid by Uriyangkhad Mongols. The Chinese let Arughtai's Eastern Mongols battle with Toghon's Oirat tribes of the west. Beijing received horses annually from Arughtai; but he was defeated by the Oirats in 1431 and was killed in 1434 when Toghon took over eastern Mongolia. The Ming court then maintained friendly relations with the Oirats. China's diplomatic relations with Japan improved in 1432. Relations with Korea were good except they resented having to send virgins occasionally to the Ming court's harem. Xuande allowed Zheng He to make one more voyage; but such maritime expeditions by eunuch captains ended in 1434.

A privy council of eunuchs strengthened centralized power by controlling the secret police, and their influence would continue to grow. In 1428 the notorious censor Liu Guan was sentenced to penal servitude and replaced by the incorruptible Gu Zuo , who dismissed 43 members of the Beijing and Nanjing censorates for incompetence. Some censors were demoted, imprisoned, and banished, but none were executed. Replacements were put on probation as the censorate investigated the entire Ming administration including the military. The same year the Emperor reformed the rules governing military conscription and the treatment of deserters. Yet the hereditary military continued to be inefficient with poor morale. Huge inequalities in tax burdens had caused most in some areas to leave their farms in the past forty years. In 1430 Emperor Xuande ordered tax reductions on all imperial lands and sent out "touring pacifiers" to coordinate provincial administration, exercising . They attempted to eliminate the irregularities and the corruption of the revenue collectors. Xuande often ordered retrials that allowed thousands of innocent people to be released. Xuande died of illness after ruling ten years.

The Xuande Emperor ruled over a remarkably peaceful time with no significant external or internal problems. Later historians have considered his reign to be the Ming dynasty's golden age.